What Is Art? The third and last point is that some of the cases discussed in this chapter have an ancient lineage and are still widely discussed outside the philosophy of art proper as pure metaphysical problems. However, beyond this important point, there is little to be said for the objection, and to the extent that its point is to rule out the identification of intention as a proper aim of art interpretation, it is ineffective. Misdescriptions satisfy this condition without being imaginary Representation: Fiction 167 scenes. The claim that objects of interpretation are intentional objects in this sense is unobjectionable, but it is no longer a view peculiar to the constructivist paradigm. The experiences may be unique to the works that offer them and this may make the experiences uniquely valuable, but the type of value involved in these experiences is not unique to art. So applied, the view can take two different forms. Subjectivism is preferable as an account of aesthetic judgment, as long as we dont know whether there are sufficiently robust groupings of sensibilities, but if there are such groupings, we may prefer a relativism that captures them. Bence Nanay introduces aesthetics, a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste. 1998a. That is accomplished by appealing to the seeing-in account. The understanding categorizes the painting as an example of Mondrians mature personal style, but, with the help of the imagination, we perceive it as unusually lively and joyful. An early attempt to conceive art historically. The value of these works seems to me to be based on the fact that they have an unexpected subject matter (other photographs). An artwork intent on exhibiting the brutality of war would not help itself by rendering its dying figures gracefully. It just means that not everything in the fictional work so functions. In the two works just mentioned these values are based on warrior-like virtues and the demands of a system of communal honor as it is locally conceived in each culture. Stecker, Robert. One is to discount the composers disavowal. A vivid portrayal in one work might be the result Conceptions of the Aesthetic: Aesthetic Properties 77 of descriptions of characters that allows one to see them in ones imagination acting and suffering in their fictional world; in another, it might be a consequence of dialogue written with a perfect ear; in a third, it is produced by the powerful emotions the characters express; in a fourth, by the intimate voice of a first-person narrator. The problem with the references to the Odyssey in O Brother, Where Art Thou? Speaking of works as types or kinds of some sort and performance as tokens or instances at least approximates this common way of talking about them. 2005. It would nevertheless not be unreasonable to substitute for this experience an equally good one offered by another cigar. Lopes, Dominic. . It did not deny, however, that one could have a strong feeling in this situation or that one might have an emotion of some kind, but because of ones lack of belief in Annas existence and of the inclination to act on what one feels, the view denies that the feeling one has is pity in the literal sense. Free beauty is the object of pure judgments of taste, and what role, if any, Kant allows for concepts here is particularly problematic. Further Reading Davies, Stephen. That is, prior to interpretation, the play is indeterminate or incomplete with respect to certain questions and it is interpretations that make it more determinate or more complete. 2002. It does not sustain the claim that all valuable artworks possess a single value in common, namely, aesthetic value. Another excellent commentary on the Critique of Judgment. For example, one might set out to just to make a vessel that holds water and end up with a remarkably beautiful pot. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. An easily accessible defense of constructivism. These considerations broaden the issues over what we can dispute, and how we can settle them. It requires attention to an actual object and its properties. The art form typically encompasses a subclass of items in the medium, items The Value of Architecture 285 made with certain intentions or which achieve certain aims that are capable (and possibly worthy) of receiving attention of art critics and audiences and being placed in certain institutional settings. 1998. The common elements in these three approaches to aesthetic experience are (1) the loss of self, will, or practical concerns and the separation from the Conceptions of the Aesthetic: Aesthetic Experience 47 everyday world for absorption in a complex of elements provided by a work of art and (2) the idea that aesthetic experience is art oriented; its emphasis on what we leave behind or lose could be said to carry on the idea that (3) aesthetic experience is disinterested (though not quite in Kants sense). One can pity those who lived in the past and no longer exist and also those who might live in a possible, very dire future. A third objection to actual intentionalism claims that reference to intentions is eliminable, and hence inessential to an account of work meaning. A. Goldman gives a more complicated example that is more helpful than the simple story with which we began. That is the common intuition it shares with actual intentionalism. In two dimensional visual art, the chief, though not the only means of representation, is depiction. One approach to this is the evocation view, which claims that the expressiveness of a work or passage consists in its tendency to evoke emotion in its audience. (2) All share at least one thing in common: that the identity of a given work in part depends on the historical context in which it is created. Even if we accept this, as I think we might, there are still some judgments that might elude a realist treatment, such as judgments of comparative value. Hence an account of the experience of music as expressive falls short of an account of expressiveness. 1991. Now suppose that a contemporary Italian artist made a work that looked just like the intact David. Philosophy of the Arts is designed specifically for readers studying aesthetics for the first ti, Tenth Edition Perhaps there can be cases where an ethically evaluable attitude is expressed in a work, but neither expressed nor possessed by the artist. The last four lines of the main body present the most complex metaphor of all. Representation is the topic of chapters 8 and 9 and expression is discussed in chapter 10. The examples given so far are untendentious illustrations that intentions bear on the nature of things though they belong to people, and so an investigation into the identity of certain intentions is not merely biographical. 1991. The third issue concerns the ontology of art. Redness would be a response-dependent property if something is red just in case it causes a characteristic response (a type of sensation) in normal observers. These references are obviously only a sampling of works espousing essentialism. My claim is that new trends in epistemology characterized primarily by dethroning of knowledge as the chief epistemic goal give support to the view according to which literature is cognitively valuable initiated centuries ago by Aristotle. One example of such a case is irony. I N T R O D U C T I O N He attempts to make something valuable as art (Budd, 1995, 1) [ital in original]. How does Dickie distinguish art world systems from other artifact presentation systems? This volume is a fascinating introduction to the core themes and basic methods of aesthetics and the philosophy of art. We considered two main ways of doing this. Hence both views are capable of explaining how the musical expression of emotion is something that can be heard. He is doing it with respect to some object. In pictures, we not only see symbols that stand for things, but it also seems as if we see the things themselves. Anne Sheppard discusses what it is that all works of art have in common - what gives them their value as art - and asks, wisely, whether there can ever be one correct interpretation of a work of art. They claim that the eclectic exterior provides visual interest, that the large size of the house is suggestive of roominess and comfort within, and its apparent dissonance with its larger environment (field and woods) is something that passes as one enjoys the surroundings from within and outside the house. When we look at photographs, do we see a representation of what is photographed? There is some plausibility in saying that the whale does not exist until there are whales (tokens of the type) and that Mozarts Clarinet Quintet didnt exist until the composer wrote the scorethe instructions for creating tokens.6 My sympathies lie with Thomasson rather than Dodd. This is how Wollheim characterizes the phenomenology: I am visually aware of the surface I look at, and I discern something standing out in front of, or, (in certain cases) receding behind, something else (Wollheim1987, 46). Jerome values the experience for its own sake (which does not preclude him also valuing it for additional benefits). One may not only imaginatively experience a visual world represented in painting, but through that, come to see the actual world presented visually in new ways. Carroll, Nol. The presence of ethical value in a work can affect the degree of the works aesthetic value, and vise versa. The idea is that there are all sorts of aesthetic value out there, which is not equally available to everyone. Paintings may be one type of object, novels a different type. 1981. They do something with or express some attitude toward what is represented. There are two versions of this view: the literal version and the as-if version. An Epistemic Dilemma for Actual Intentionalism. British Journal of Aesthetics 41:192206. Among those who reject traditional approaches to defining art (such as the aesthetic definition), consensus has wavered between those who claim that art cannot be defined and those who think it can if we look in less obvious places. I say these views are often held together. Overview of the debate about artistic value and an argument for a pluralist conception. It exhibits or makes manifest the property. It is further discussed in (Wollheim, 1987, 1998) Two explications of seeing-in that are further in spirit from Wollheims than the account offered here, and were in fact rejected by Wollheim, are those offered by Hopkins (1998, 2003) and by Walton (1990, 2002). Kivy, Peter. Conceptions of the Aesthetic: Aesthetic Experience 55 Traditionally, it is considered to be, but now we are ready to turn to arguments to the contrary.6 One argument against the traditional view is this: if aesthetic experience is valuable for itself, it must be something of positive value, something that is good. The plausibility of this view hangs on whether we actually gain something by making this posit that is denied to those who claim that we merely make believe that people are being referred to in fiction, or who claim that it is merely true in the fiction, but not in reality, that such reference occurs. Kant characterized this last feature in terms of the free play of the imagination and understanding in responding to an object. Rhythm and Noise: An Aesthetics of Rock Music. Hence, even this broadened conception of the valuable experience of the work can be construed as maintaining the line between different evaluative perspectives. Alternatively, one can say that the sentimental value that involves perceiving the songs expressive Artistic Value 241 properties has two components. Goldmans version attempts to meet this objection by appealing to a special object of attention (absorption): a virtual world distinct from the real one. 2002. These aspects of recent art history reflect underlying issues that have always been with us. . In aesthetics and the philosophy of art, two pictures of art's relation to morality predominate. Whats more, an initial impression can be rejected upon further consideration. So the environmental model appears to free us from any one narrow conception of the way nature should be enjoyed. Stephen Davies argues that the same can be said of architecture, and so it too is not an art form (Davies 1995). Both may be perceptually processing the same properties of the Picasso painting. For a building to have features that can be subject to aesthetic appraisal, those features neednt be intentionally designed for this purpose. Levinson is giving us an account of what expression of emotion in a work is. What contribution is left to be made by my intention to say this? Boulder, CO: Westview Press. One hopes that chapter 11 discredited this view. 143 Krausz, Michael. Symbolic or structural theories of depiction will be bypassed in the discussion that follows but let me point the reader to the most important sources of such theories. Antiessentialism about artistic value: The view that artistic value is determined by the contingent aims of artists and expectations of audiences; the denial of essentialism about artistic value. When we interpret artworks, do we try to identify actual or hypothetical intentions? There are some ordinary uses of make-believe in which it is a synonym for pretense. 275 276 Chapter Thirteen Buildings as Environments Among the overarching aims of architecture, one is to create a building, which can be described as an artificial environment serving a particular and practical purpose; a second aim is to integrate this building with a larger environment, artificial or natural, which includes the grounds belonging to the building but typically extends beyond that. Mass Art and the Emotions, Preface to the Second Edition - Acknowledgements - The Background - The 'Analytic of the Beautiful' - The Second Moment - The Third and Fourth Moments - Judgements of Taste and Their Deduction - The. 2. There is nothing morally suspect about soliciting such a complex response from us. However, its more in keeping with the idea that this is a version of subjectivism that, when I say, thats elegant, my judgment makes reference to myself, not an ideal observer. One might intend it for regard for its form, expressiveness, or verisimilitude. They really enjoy the environment that the house and surroundings provide; part of their enjoyment is aesthetic. The utterers attitude and that expressed by the poem converge, and it is the former that conveys the latter. Anne Sheppard discusses what it is that all works of art have in common - what gives them their value as art - and asks, wisely, whether there can ever be one correct interpretation of a work of art. Jerrold Levinson. Significant form is form that imbues what possesses it with a special sort of value that consists in the affect produced in those who perceive it. 1990. Wollheim, Richard. Turning from criticism of antirealism in general, to the specific versions of it, is there one that should be preferred? There is absolutely no reason to suppose that there is one valuable property or one sort of value that artworks possess as art, although the conception does not strictly rule out this possibility.3 It is this second view that will be supported here. Contextualism: A general approach to the philosophy of art that emphasizes that many important artistic properties of works derive from their context of origin. The second claim is that sometimes a moral defect will be the feature that prevents (or ought to prevent) the required response. We notice properties as properties of objects on the object model, while this is more optional on the impressionist model. Suburbanites would have a prototypes perhaps based on the features of robins, sparrows, and finches, whereas people who live near the ocean would have one based on features of gulls, turns, and cormorants. 1998. However, targeting this thesis does help to isolate a necessary condition for an intentionalist theory of meaning that has a chance of success. 1983. Nothing else provides this value. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. 3. (2) You are looking at a maple tree in the fall and you appreciate its vivid colors, the well-balanced arrangement of its limbs, and its harmony with the surrounding environment. The answer is no. That is, the value proper to good art includes aesthetic value, but also includes such things as cognitive value, art-historical value, and so on. 3. There could be three reasons. In each of these works, we find a system of values not so much endorsed as taken for granted. 1987a. Art has some essential connection with communication. Recall the passage quoted above from The Dead. The operative question about it is: what is its point? It by no means represents the Greeks as good and the Trojans as bad. Frank Sibley (1959) suggested that aesthetic properties are marked by the fact that taste or sensitivity is needed for their recognition. All are interrelated, not least by their being understood in the light of the paradigmatically (if not exclusively) religious pursuit of the transcendent. Argues for the identity thesis. That is not in doubt, as we just argued. 2009. The only response I have to the objection is this: if you can figure out what we are really doing without appealing to methodological considerations, go ahead. A realist account of aesthetic properties. For example, one might see-in a painting an angel traveling toward earth when it is in fact rising toward heaven. For a summary of and response to these, see Levinson 2002. . The closest Wollheim comes to endorsing the view that nonexistence is a property of seeing-in is this passage: Seeing-in de- Representation: Depiction 199 rives from a special perceptual capacity, which presupposes, but is something over and above, straightforward perception. The first attempt to do this grounds the cognitive value of some artworks in the imaginative experience of being, in one way or another, bad.11 However, it is not enough to argue that morally flawed works can offer these experiences. . Are there, in fact, aesthetic properties? It also shouldnt be assumed that the question what type of object is an artwork?is the right question to ask because the question presupposes that there is one type of object that all artworks fall under, and this is far from obvious. No print, reel, electronic copy, or screening is the film. Robert Morris issued a notarized statement withdrawing all aesthetic qualities from a metal construction that bore the poetic title Litanies. At least, it appears to escape the first counterexample. Although, as in ancient thought, one of the defining feature of the arts was the fact that they are representations, they were now valued in explicitly aesthetic terms. Beardsley, Monroe. Similarly, there may have been a time when people were faultless in believing whales and dolphins were fish. Are these the conditions under which travel is valued for its own sake, or is travel simply a means to these goods? 4, 1997, 393402. It gives aesthetic judgments a way of being incorrect other than being a mere misreporting of the experience. The idea is to take in as much of a given environment as possible with as many senses as possible on any given occasion.6 The ecological approach recommends that one perceives in nature the relations of dependence, sustenance, or conflict that constitutes an environments ecosystem, finding aesthetic satisfaction in the perceived relations and the balance or harmony they create. My view is that (with the exception of wit, which requires a different treatment) there is no clear answer to this question. In the case of paintings, at least, even when the painting is a portrait, say of Henry VIII, or represents an actual person, say Socrates, though it is not a portrait of that person, most people think I am not actually seeing Henry VIII or Socrates in seeing them in the painting. In fact, the counterexamples are especially prevalent in the case of our moral affective responses to works. To focus just on this one flower may hide, make invisible, some of its appreciation-enhancing properties, but it does not lead me to ascribe to it properties it does not have. If anything seems to set this apart from other things, it is the pursuit of something transcendent that is supposed to be supremely valuable. Perceiving the latter implies that the object contains a blue area. Things happen to the characters, the narrator knows that they do somehow, and he or she tells us. Very Short Introductions. Interestingly, discussions of beauty, on the one hand, and poetry, painting, music, etc., on the other, are distinct. For example, if one is anemic, objects appear to have a yellow tinge whatever their true color. 2003. Just what the title says. In that sense, I bring together two views: literary cognitivism, according to which literature is a source of knowledge and can be cognitively valuable, and plurality view of epistemic aims and values, according to which there are various epistemologically important states and processes other than knowledge. One objection to all versions of antirealism is that it does not sufficiently capture the normative character of aesthetic judgments (Zangwill 2001). The problem here is that we were initially looking, or believed ourselves to be looking, for an account of the latter. For the first time, perhaps, a group of objects were classified together in virtue of their aesthetic function.1 Deservedly or not, it is from this eighteenth-century source that several alternative conceptions of the subject matter of aesthetics have emerged. One line of thought is that the subsequent object is constructed by selecting material found in the initial object (Krausz 1993, 6667). There is a type of painting called trompe loeil, which, when viewed under the right conditions, one cannot tell one is looking at a painting. Doesnt this sculpture also lack something essential to being David? 2. We can also assert that possessing this value makes it valuable as art. Reading with Feeling: The Aesthetics of Appreciation. Consider a morel hunting expedition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. It asssumes the correctness of the content-oriented conception. Our discussion in the preceding section implicitly classified aesthetic properties into three types (after beginning with a far more complex classification): general-value properties, specific-value properties, and purely descriptive properties. Indianapolis: Hackett, 4965. Imagine looking, on a windless morning, at a lake the surface of which is perfectly still and, as a result, reflects sky and shore line with a mirrorlike quality. 2003. A collection of essays many of which present Beardsleys various efforts to define aesthetic experience. Even if we grant all of the above, many styles of depiction dont capture this sort of resemblance. Only morally flawed works can provide this experience or at least they have a special advantage in providing it. He appears to base his view on the purported fact that the art world is fragmented into various different circles of artists, of critics, and of ordinary art appreciators, and as one goes from circle to circle at all levels one finds no common core of What Is Art? It also has implications for what makes a given work the individual work it is. Moderate Moralism. British Journal of Aesthetics 36: 22337. This is almost always true in official conversation, for example, ones boss explaining the conditions for promotion, but it is true on many other occasions as well. Yet Henry does set off on such a journey because his goal in life is to become a landscape painter, and he knows that to pursue this he must leave the village and find a teacher in a center known for such art. 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